UNCITRAL MODEL LAW ON INTERNATIONAL COMMERCIAL ARBITRATION

UNITED NATIONS
UNCITRAL Model Law on
International Commercial
Arbitration
1985
With amendments
as adopted in 2006

UNCITRAL UNITED NATIONS COMMISSION ON INTERNATIONAL TRADE LAW
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UNITED NATIONS COMMISSION ON INTERNATIONAL TRADE LAW
UNCITRAL Model Law on
International Commercial
Arbitration
1985
With amendments
as adopted in 2006
UNITED NATIONS
Vienna, 2008
NOTE
Symbols of United Nations documents are composed of capital letters
combined with fi gures. Mention of such a symbol indicates a reference to a
United Nations document.
UNITED NATIONS PUBLICATION
Sales No. E.08.V.4
ISBN 978-92-1-133773-0
iii

Contents
Page
Resolutions adopted by the General Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
General Assembly Resolution 40/72 (11 December 1985) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
General Assembly Resolution 61/33 (4 December 2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .viii
Part One
UNCITRAL MODEL LAW ON INTERNATIONAL COMMERCIAL
ARBITRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Chapter I. General provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Article 1. Scope of application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Article 2. Defi nitions and rules of interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Article 2A. International origin and general principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Article 3. Receipt of written communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Article 4. Waiver of right to object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Article 5. Extent of court intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Article 6. Court or other authority for certain functions of arbitration
assistance and supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Chapter II. Arbitration agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Article 7. Option I Defi nition and form of arbitration agreement . . . . . . 4
Option II Defi nition of arbitration agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Article 8. Arbitration agreement and substantive claim before court . . . 5
Article 9. Arbitration agreement and interim measures by court . . . . . . . 5
Chapter III. Composition of arbitral tribunal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Article 10. Number of arbitrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Article 11. Appointment of arbitrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Article 12. Grounds for challenge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Article 13. Challenge procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Article 14. Failure or impossibility to act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Article 15. Appointment of substitute arbitrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Chapter IV. Jurisdiction of arbitral tribunal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Article 16. Competence of arbitral tribunal to rule on its jurisdiction . . . 8
iv
Page
Chapter IV A. Interim measures and preliminary orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Section 1. Interim measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Article 17. Power of arbitral tribunal to order interim measures . . . 9
Article 17 A. Conditions for granting interim measures . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Section 2. Preliminary orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Article 17 B. Applications for preliminary orders and conditions
for granting preliminary orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Article 17 C. Specifi c regime for preliminary orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Section 3. Provisions applicable to interim measures and preliminary
orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Article 17 D. Modifi cation, suspension, termination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Article 17 E. Provision of security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Article 17 F. Disclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Article 17 G. Costs and damages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Section 4. Recognition and enforcement of interim measures . . . . . . . . . . 12
Article 17 H. Recognition and enforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Article 17 I. Grounds for refusing recognition or enforcement . . . . 13
Section 5. Court-ordered interim measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Article 17 J. Court-ordered interim measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Chapter V. Conduct of arbitral proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Article 18. Equal treatment of parties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Article 19. Determination of rules of procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Article 20. Place of arbitration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Article 21. Commencement of arbitral proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Article 22. Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Article 23. Statements of claim and defence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Article 24. Hearings and written proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Article 25. Default of a party . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Article 26. Expert appointed by arbitral tribunal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Article 27. Court assistance in taking evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Chapter VI. Making of award and termination of proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Article 28. Rules applicable to substance of dispute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Article 29. Decision-making by panel of arbitrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Article 30. Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Article 31. Form and contents of award . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Article 32. Termination of proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Article 33. Correction and interpretation of award; additional award . . . 18
v
Page
Chapter VII. Recourse against award . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Article 34. Application for setting aside as exclusive recourse against
arbitral award . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Chapter VIII. Recognition and enforcement of awards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Article 35. Recognition and enforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Article 36. Grounds for refusing recognition or enforcement . . . . . . . . . 21
Part Two
EXPLANATORY NOTE BY THE UNCITRAL SECRETARIAT ON THE
MODEL LAW ON INTERNATIONAL COMMERCIAL ARBITRATION . . . . . 23
A. Background to the Model Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1. Inadequacy of domestic laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2. Disparity between national laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
B. Salient features of the Model Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1. Special procedural regime for international commercial
arbitration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2. Arbitration agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3. Composition of arbitral tribunal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4. Jurisdiction of arbitral tribunal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5. Conduct of arbitral proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6. Making of award and termination of proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
7. Recourse against award . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
8. Recognition and enforcement of awards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Part Three
“Recommendation regarding the interpretation of article II, paragraph 2,
and article VII, paragraph 1, of the Convention on the Recognition and
Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards, done in New York, 10 June
1958”, adopted by the United Nations Commission on International
Trade Law on 7 July 2006 at its thirty-ninth session . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

vii
Resolutions adopted by the General Assembly
40/72. Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration
of the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law
The General Assembly,
Recognizing the value of arbitration as a method of settling disputes arising in
international commercial relations,
Convinced that the establishment of a model law on arbitration that is acceptable to States with different legal, social and economic systems contributes to the
development of harmonious international economic relations,
Noting that the Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration1
was
adopted by the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law at its
eighteenth session, after due deliberation and extensive consultation with arbitral
institutions and individual experts on international commercial arbitration,
Convinced that the Model Law, together with the Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards2
and the Arbitration Rules of the
United Nations Commission on International Trade Law3
recommended by the
General Assembly in its resolution 31/98 of 15 December 1976, signifi cantly
contributes to the establishment of a unifi ed legal framework for the fair and effi cient
settlement of disputes arising in international commercial relations,
1. Requests the Secretary-General to transmit the text of the Model Law on
International Commercial Arbitration of the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law, together with the travaux préparatoires from the eighteenth
session of the Commission, to Governments and to arbitral institutions and other
interested bodies, such as chambers of commerce;
2. Recommends that all States give due consideration to the Model Law on
International Commercial Arbitration, in view of the desirability of uniformity of
the law of arbitral procedures and the specifi c needs of international commercial
arbitration practice.
112th plenary meeting
11 December 1985
1Offi cial Records of the General Assembly, Fortieth Session, Supplement No. 17 (A/40/17), annex I.
2United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 330, No. 4739, p. 38.
3United Nations publication, Sales No. E.77.V.6.
viii
[on the report of the Sixth Committee (A/61/453)]
61/33. Revised articles of the Model Law on International Commercial
Arbitration of the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law,
and the recommendation regarding the interpretation of article II, paragraph 2,
and article VII, paragraph 1, of the Convention on the Recognition and
Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards, done at New York, 10 June 1958
The General Assembly,
Recognizing the value of arbitration as a method of settling disputes arising in
the context of international commercial relations,
Recalling its resolution 40/72 of 11 December 1985 regarding the Model Law
on International Commercial Arbitration,1
Recognizing the need for provisions in the Model Law to conform to current
practices in international trade and modern means of contracting with regard to the
form of the arbitration agreement and the granting of interim measures,
Believing that revised articles of the Model Law on the form of the arbitration
agreement and interim measures refl ecting those current practices will signifi cantly
enhance the operation of the Model Law,
Noting that the preparation of the revised articles of the Model Law on the
form of the arbitration agreement and interim measures was the subject of due
deliberation and extensive consultations with Governments and interested circles
and would contribute signifi cantly to the establishment of a harmonized legal framework for a fair and effi cient settlement of international commercial disputes,
Believing that, in connection with the modernization of articles of the Model
Law, the promotion of a uniform interpretation and application of the Convention
on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards, done at New York,
10 June 1958,2
is particularly timely,
1. Expresses its appreciation to the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law for formulating and adopting the revised articles of its Model Law
on International Commercial Arbitration on the form of the arbitration agreement
and interim measures, the text of which is contained in annex I to the report of the
United Nations Commission on International Trade Law on the work of its thirtyninth session,3
and recommends that all States give favourable consideration to the
enactment of the revised articles of the Model Law, or the revised Model Law
on International Commercial Arbitration of the United Nations Commission on
1Offi cial Records of the General Assembly, Fortieth Session, Supplement No. 17 (A/40/17),
annex I.
2United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 330, No. 4739. 3Offi cial Records of the General Assembly, Sixty-fi rst Session, Supplement No. 17 (A/61/17).
ix
International Trade Law, when they enact or revise their laws, in view of the desirability of uniformity of the law of arbitral procedures and the specifi c needs of
international commercial arbitration practice;
2. Also expresses its appreciation to the United Nations Commission on
International Trade Law for formulating and adopting the recommendation regarding
the interpretation of article II, paragraph 2, and article VII, paragraph 1, of the
Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards, done
at New York, 10 June 1958,2
the text of which is contained in annex II to the report
of the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law on the work of its
thirty-ninth session;3
3. Requests the Secretary-General to make all efforts to ensure that the revised
articles of the Model Law and the recommendation become generally known and
available.
64th plenary meeting
4 December 2006

1
Part One
UNCITRAL Model Law on International
Commercial Arbitration
(United Nations documents A/40/17,
annex I and A/61/17, annex I)
(As adopted by the United Nations Commission on
International Trade Law on 21 June 1985,
and as amended by the United Nations Commission
on International Trade Law on 7 July 2006)
CHAPTER I. GENERAL PROVISIONS
Article 1. Scope of application1
(1) This Law applies to international commercial2
arbitration, subject to
any agreement in force between this State and any other State or States.
(2) The provisions of this Law, except articles 8, 9, 17 H, 17 I, 17 J, 35
and 36, apply only if the place of arbitration is in the territory of this
State.
(Article 1(2) has been amended by the Commission at its thirty-ninth session, in 2006)
(3) An arbitration is international if:
(a) the parties to an arbitration agreement have, at the time of the conclusion of that agreement, their places of business in different States; or
1Article headings are for reference purposes only and are not to be used for purposes of
interpretation.
2The term “commercial” should be given a wide interpretation so as to cover matters arising from
all relationships of a commercial nature, whether contractual or not. Relationships of a commercial nature
include, but are not limited to, the following transactions: any trade transaction for the supply or exchange
of goods or services; distribution agreement; commercial representation or agency; factoring; leasing;
construction of works; consulting; engineering; licensing; investment; fi nancing; banking; insurance;
exploitation agreement or concession; joint venture and other forms of industrial or business cooperation;
carriage of goods or passengers by air, sea, rail or road.
2 UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration
(b) one of the following places is situated outside the State in which
the parties have their places of business:
(i) the place of arbitration if determined in, or pursuant to, the
arbitration agreement;
(ii) any place where a substantial part of the obligations of the
commercial relationship is to be performed or the place with
which the subject-matter of the dispute is most closely connected; or
(c) the parties have expressly agreed that the subject matter of the
arbitration agreement relates to more than one country.
(4) For the purposes of paragraph (3) of this article:
(a) if a party has more than one place of business, the place of business
is that which has the closest relationship to the arbitration agreement;
(b) if a party does not have a place of business, reference is to be
made to his habitual residence.
(5) This Law shall not affect any other law of this State by virtue of which
certain disputes may not be submitted to arbitration or may be submitted to
arbitration only according to provisions other than those of this Law.
Article 2. Defi nitions and rules of interpretation
For the purposes of this Law:
(a) “arbitration” means any arbitration whether or not administered
by a permanent arbitral institution;
(b) “arbitral tribunal” means a sole arbitrator or a panel of arbitrators;
(c) “court” means a body or organ of the judicial system of a State;
(d) where a provision of this Law, except article 28, leaves the parties
free to determine a certain issue, such freedom includes the right of the
parties to authorize a third party, including an institution, to make that
determination;
(e) where a provision of this Law refers to the fact that the parties
have agreed or that they may agree or in any other way refers to an agreement of the parties, such agreement includes any arbitration rules referred
to in that agreement;
Part One. UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration 3
(f) where a provision of this Law, other than in articles 25(a) and
32(2) (a), refers to a claim, it also applies to a counter-claim, and where it
refers to a defence, it also applies to a defence to such counter-claim.
Article 2 A. International origin and general principles
(As adopted by the Commission at its thirty-ninth session, in 2006)
(1) In the interpretation of this Law, regard is to be had to its international
origin and to the need to promote uniformity in its application and the
observance of good faith.
(2) Questions concerning matters governed by this Law which are not
expressly settled in it are to be settled in conformity with the general
principles on which this Law is based.
Article 3. Receipt of written communications
(1) Unless otherwise agreed by the parties:
(a) any written communication is deemed to have been received if it
is delivered to the addressee personally or if it is delivered at his place of
business, habitual residence or mailing address; if none of these can be found
after making a reasonable inquiry, a written communication is deemed to
have been received if it is sent to the addressee’s last-known place of business, habitual residence or mailing address by registered letter or any other
means which provides a record of the attempt to deliver it;
(b) the communication is deemed to have been received on the day
it is so delivered.
(2) The provisions of this article do not apply to communications in court
proceedings.
Article 4. Waiver of right to object
A party who knows that any provision of this Law from which the parties
may derogate or any requirement under the arbitration agreement has not
been complied with and yet proceeds with the arbitration without stating his
objection to such non-compliance without undue delay or, if a time-limit is
provided therefor, within such period of time, shall be deemed to have
waived his right to object.
4 UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration
Article 5. Extent of court intervention
In matters governed by this Law, no court shall intervene except where so
provided in this Law.
Article 6. Court or other authority for certain functions
of arbitration assistance and supervision
The functions referred to in articles 11(3), 11(4), 13(3), 14, 16(3) and 34(2)
shall be performed by … [Each State enacting this model law specifi es the
court, courts or, where referred to therein, other authority competent to
perform these functions.]
CHAPTER II. ARBITRATION AGREEMENT
Option I
Article 7. Defi nition and form of arbitration agreement
(As adopted by the Commission at its thirty-ninth session, in 2006)
(1) “Arbitration agreement” is an agreement by the parties to submit to
arbitration all or certain disputes which have arisen or which may arise
between them in respect of a defi ned legal relationship, whether contractual
or not. An arbitration agreement may be in the form of an arbitration clause
in a contract or in the form of a separate agreement.
(2) The arbitration agreement shall be in writing.
(3) An arbitration agreement is in writing if its content is recorded in any
form, whether or not the arbitration agreement or contract has been concluded orally, by conduct, or by other means.
(4) The requirement that an arbitration agreement be in writing is met by
an electronic communication if the information contained therein is accessible so as to be useable for subsequent reference; “electronic communication” means any communication that the parties make by means of data
messages; “data message” means information generated, sent, received or
stored by electronic, magnetic, optical or similar means, including, but not
Part One. UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration 5
limited to, electronic data interchange (EDI), electronic mail, telegram, telex
or telecopy.
(5) Furthermore, an arbitration agreement is in writing if it is contained in
an exchange of statements of claim and defence in which the existence of
an agreement is alleged by one party and not denied by the other.
(6) The reference in a contract to any document containing an arbitration
clause constitutes an arbitration agreement in writing, provided that the reference is such as to make that clause part of the contract.
Option II
Article 7. Defi nition of arbitration agreement
(As adopted by the Commission at its thirty-ninth session, in 2006)
“Arbitration agreement” is an agreement by the parties to submit to arbitration all or certain disputes which have arisen or which may arise
between them in respect of a defi ned legal relationship, whether contractual
or not.
Article 8. Arbitration agreement and substantive claim before court
(1) A court before which an action is brought in a matter which is the
subject of an arbitration agreement shall, if a party so requests not later than
when submitting his fi rst statement on the substance of the dispute, refer
the parties to arbitration unless it fi nds that the agreement is null and void,
inoperative or incapable of being performed.
(2) Where an action referred to in paragraph (1) of this article has been
brought, arbitral proceedings may nevertheless be commenced or continued,
and an award may be made, while the issue is pending before the court.
Article 9. Arbitration agreement and interim measures by court
It is not incompatible with an arbitration agreement for a party to request,
before or during arbitral proceedings, from a court an interim measure of
protection and for a court to grant such measure.
6 UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration
CHAPTER III. COMPOSITION OF ARBITRAL TRIBUNAL
Article 10. Number of arbitrators
(1) The parties are free to determine the number of arbitrators.
(2) Failing such determination, the number of arbitrators shall be three.
Article 11. Appointment of arbitrators
(1) No person shall be precluded by reason of his nationality from acting
as an arbitrator, unless otherwise agreed by the parties.
(2) The parties are free to agree on a procedure of appointing the arbitrator
or arbitrators, subject to the provisions of paragraphs (4) and (5) of this
article.
(3) Failing such agreement,
(a) in an arbitration with three arbitrators, each party shall appoint
one arbitrator, and the two arbitrators thus appointed shall appoint the third
arbitrator; if a party fails to appoint the arbitrator within thirty days of receipt
of a request to do so from the other party, or if the two arbitrators fail to
agree on the third arbitrator within thirty days of their appointment, the
appointment shall be made, upon request of a party, by the court or other
authority specifi ed in article 6;
(b) in an arbitration with a sole arbitrator, if the parties are unable to
agree on the arbitrator, he shall be appointed, upon request of a party, by
the court or other authority specifi ed in article 6.
(4) Where, under an appointment procedure agreed upon by the parties,
(a) a party fails to act as required under such procedure, or
(b) the parties, or two arbitrators, are unable to reach an agreement
expected of them under such procedure, or
(c) a third party, including an institution, fails to perform any function
entrusted to it under such procedure,
any party may request the court or other authority specifi ed in article 6 to
take the necessary measure, unless the agreement on the appointment procedure provides other means for securing the appointment.
(5) A decision on a matter entrusted by paragraph (3) or (4) of this article
to the court or other authority specifi ed in article 6 shall be subject to no
Part One. UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration 7
appeal. The court or other authority, in appointing an arbitrator, shall have
due regard to any qualifi cations required of the arbitrator by the agreement
of the parties and to such considerations as are likely to secure the appointment of an independent and impartial arbitrator and, in the case of a sole
or third arbitrator, shall take into account as well the advisability of appointing an arbitrator of a nationality other than those of the parties.
Article 12. Grounds for challenge
(1) When a person is approached in connection with his possible appointment as an arbitrator, he shall disclose any circumstances likely to give rise
to justifi able doubts as to his impartiality or independence. An arbitrator,
from the time of his appointment and throughout the arbitral proceedings,
shall without delay disclose any such circumstances to the parties unless
they have already been informed of them by him.
(2) An arbitrator may be challenged only if circumstances exist that give rise
to justifi able doubts as to his impartiality or independence, or if he does not
possess qualifi cations agreed to by the parties. A party may challenge an arbitrator appointed by him, or in whose appointment he has participated, only for
reasons of which he becomes aware after the appointment has been made.
Article 13. Challenge procedure
(1) The parties are free to agree on a procedure for challenging an arbitrator, subject to the provisions of paragraph (3) of this article.
(2) Failing such agreement, a party who intends to challenge an arbitrator
shall, within fi fteen days after becoming aware of the constitution of the
arbitral tribunal or after becoming aware of any circumstance referred to in
article 12(2), send a written statement of the reasons for the challenge to
the arbitral tribunal. Unless the challenged arbitrator withdraws from his
offi ce or the other party agrees to the challenge, the arbitral tribunal shall
decide on the challenge.
(3) If a challenge under any procedure agreed upon by the parties or under
the procedure of paragraph (2) of this article is not successful, the challenging party may request, within thirty days after having received notice of the
decision rejecting the challenge, the court or other authority specifi ed in
article 6 to decide on the challenge, which decision shall be subject to no
appeal; while such a request is pending, the arbitral tribunal, including the
challenged arbitrator, may continue the arbitral proceedings and make an award.
8 UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration
Article 14. Failure or impossibility to act
(1) If an arbitrator becomes de jure or de facto unable to perform his functions or for other reasons fails to act without undue delay, his mandate
terminates if he withdraws from his offi ce or if the parties agree on the
termination. Otherwise, if a controversy remains concerning any of these
grounds, any party may request the court or other authority specifi ed in
article 6 to decide on the termination of the mandate, which decision shall
be subject to no appeal.
(2) If, under this article or article 13(2), an arbitrator withdraws from his
offi ce or a party agrees to the termination of the mandate of an arbitrator,
this does not imply acceptance of the validity of any ground referred to in
this article or article 12(2).
Article 15. Appointment of substitute arbitrator
Where the mandate of an arbitrator terminates under article 13 or 14 or
because of his withdrawal from offi ce for any other reason or because of
the revocation of his mandate by agreement of the parties or in any other
case of termination of his mandate, a substitute arbitrator shall be appointed
according to the rules that were applicable to the appointment of the arbitrator being replaced.
CHAPTER IV. JURISDICTION OF ARBITRAL TRIBUNAL
Article 16. Competence of arbitral tribunal to rule on its jurisdiction
(1) The arbitral tribunal may rule on its own jurisdiction, including any
objections with respect to the existence or validity of the arbitration agreement. For that purpose, an arbitration clause which forms part of a contract
shall be treated as an agreement independent of the other terms of the contract. A decision by the arbitral tribunal that the contract is null and void
shall not entail ipso jure the invalidity of the arbitration clause.
(2) A plea that the arbitral tribunal does not have jurisdiction shall be raised
not later than the submission of the statement of defence. A party is not
precluded from raising such a plea by the fact that he has appointed, or
participated in the appointment of, an arbitrator. A plea that the arbitral tribunal is exceeding the scope of its authority shall be raised as soon as the
Part One. UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration 9
matter alleged to be beyond the scope of its authority is raised during the
arbitral proceedings. The arbitral tribunal may, in either case, admit a later
plea if it considers the delay justifi ed.
(3) The arbitral tribunal may rule on a plea referred to in paragraph (2) of
this article either as a preliminary question or in an award on the merits. If
the arbitral tribunal rules as a preliminary question that it has jurisdiction,
any party may request, within thirty days after having received notice of
that ruling, the court specifi ed in article 6 to decide the matter, which decision shall be subject to no appeal; while such a request is pending, the
arbitral tribunal may continue the arbitral proceedings and make an award.
CHAPTER IV A. INTERIM MEASURES
AND PRELIMINARY ORDERS
(As adopted by the Commission at its thirty-ninth session, in 2006)
Section 1. Interim measures
Article 17. Power of arbitral tribunal to order interim measures
(1) Unless otherwise agreed by the parties, the arbitral tribunal may, at the
request of a party, grant interim measures.
(2) An interim measure is any temporary measure, whether in the form of
an award or in another form, by which, at any time prior to the issuance of
the award by which the dispute is fi nally decided, the arbitral tribunal orders
a party to:
(a) Maintain or restore the status quo pending determination of the
dispute;
(b) Take action that would prevent, or refrain from taking action that
is likely to cause, current or imminent harm or prejudice to the arbitral
process itself;
(c) Provide a means of preserving assets out of which a subsequent
award may be satisfi ed; or
(d) Preserve evidence that may be relevant and material to the resolution of the dispute.
10 UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration
Article 17 A. Conditions for granting interim measures
(1) The party requesting an interim measure under article 17(2)(a), (b) and
(c) shall satisfy the arbitral tribunal that:
(a) Harm not adequately reparable by an award of damages is likely
to result if the measure is not ordered, and such harm substantially outweighs
the harm that is likely to result to the party against whom the measure is
directed if the measure is granted; and
(b) There is a reasonable possibility that the requesting party will
succeed on the merits of the claim. The determination on this possibility
shall not affect the discretion of the arbitral tribunal in making any subsequent determination.
(2) With regard to a request for an interim measure under article 17(2)(d),
the requirements in paragraphs (1)(a) and (b) of this article shall apply only
to the extent the arbitral tribunal considers appropriate.
Section 2. Preliminary orders
Article 17 B. Applications for preliminary orders and
conditions for granting preliminary orders
(1) Unless otherwise agreed by the parties, a party may, without notice to
any other party, make a request for an interim measure together with an
application for a preliminary order directing a party not to frustrate the
purpose of the interim measure requested.
(2) The arbitral tribunal may grant a preliminary order provided it considers
that prior disclosure of the request for the interim measure to the party
against whom it is directed risks frustrating the purpose of the measure.
(3) The conditions defi ned under article 17A apply to any preliminary
order, provided that the harm to be assessed under article 17A(1)(a), is the
harm likely to result from the order being granted or not.
Article 17 C. Specifi c regime for preliminary orders
(1) Immediately after the arbitral tribunal has made a determination in
respect of an application for a preliminary order, the arbitral tribunal shall give
notice to all parties of the request for the interim measure, the application for
Part One. UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration 11
the preliminary order, the preliminary order, if any, and all other communications, including by indicating the content of any oral communication, between any party and the arbitral tribunal in relation thereto.
(2) At the same time, the arbitral tribunal shall give an opportunity to any
party against whom a preliminary order is directed to present its case at the
earliest practicable time.
(3) The arbitral tribunal shall decide promptly on any objection to the
preliminary order.
(4) A preliminary order shall expire after twenty days from the date on
which it was issued by the arbitral tribunal. However, the arbitral tribunal
may issue an interim measure adopting or modifying the preliminary order,
after the party against whom the preliminary order is directed has been given
notice and an opportunity to present its case.
(5) A preliminary order shall be binding on the parties but shall not be
subject to enforcement by a court. Such a preliminary order does not constitute an award.
Section 3. Provisions applicable to interim measures
and preliminary orders
Article 17 D. Modifi cation, suspension, termination
The arbitral tribunal may modify, suspend or terminate an interim
measure or a preliminary order it has granted, upon application of any party
or, in exceptional circumstances and upon prior notice to the parties, on the
arbitral tribunal’s own initiative.
Article 17 E. Provision of security
(1) The arbitral tribunal may require the party requesting an interim
measure to provide appropriate security in connection with the measure.
(2) The arbitral tribunal shall require the party applying for a preliminary
order to provide security in connection with the order unless the arbitral
tribunal considers it inappropriate or unnecessary to do so.
12 UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration
Article 17 F. Disclosure
(1) The arbitral tribunal may require any party promptly to disclose any
material change in the circumstances on the basis of which the measure was
requested or granted.
(2) The party applying for a preliminary order shall disclose to the arbitral
tribunal all circumstances that are likely to be relevant to the arbitral tribunal’s determination whether to grant or maintain the order, and such obligation shall continue until the party against whom the order has been requested
has had an opportunity to present its case. Thereafter, paragraph (1) of this
article shall apply.
Article 17 G. Costs and damages
The party requesting an interim measure or applying for a preliminary
order shall be liable for any costs and damages caused by the measure or
the order to any party if the arbitral tribunal later determines that, in the
circumstances, the measure or the order should not have been granted. The
arbitral tribunal may award such costs and damages at any point during the
proceedings.
Section 4. Recognition and enforcement of interim measures
Article 17 H. Recognition and enforcement
(1) An interim measure issued by an arbitral tribunal shall be recognized
as binding and, unless otherwise provided by the arbitral tribunal, enforced
upon application to the competent court, irrespective of the country in which
it was issued, subject to the provisions of article 17 I.
(2) The party who is seeking or has obtained recognition or enforcement
of an interim measure shall promptly inform the court of any termination,
suspension or modifi cation of that interim measure.
(3) The court of the State where recognition or enforcement is sought may,
if it considers it proper, order the requesting party to provide appropriate
security if the arbitral tribunal has not already made a determination with
respect to security or where such a decision is necessary to protect the rights
of third parties.
Part One. UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration 13
Article 17 I. Grounds for refusing recognition or enforcement3
(1) Recognition or enforcement of an interim measure may be refused
only:
(a) At the request of the party against whom it is invoked if the court
is satisfi ed that:
(i) Such refusal is warranted on the grounds set forth in article 36(1)(a)(i), (ii), (iii) or (iv); or
(ii) The arbitral tribunal’s decision with respect to the provision
of security in connection with the interim measure issued
by the arbitral tribunal has not been complied with; or
(iii) The interim measure has been terminated or suspended by
the arbitral tribunal or, where so empowered, by the court
of the State in which the arbitration takes place or under
the law of which that interim measure was granted; or
(b) If the court fi nds that:
(i) The interim measure is incompatible with the powers conferred upon the court unless the court decides to reformulate
the interim measure to the extent necessary to adapt it to its
own powers and procedures for the purposes of enforcing that
interim measure and without modifying its substance; or
(ii) Any of the grounds set forth in article 36(1)(b)(i) or (ii),
apply to the recognition and enforcement of the interim
measure.
(2) Any determination made by the court on any ground in paragraph (1)
of this article shall be effective only for the purposes of the application to
recognize and enforce the interim measure. The court where recognition or
enforcement is sought shall not, in making that determination, undertake a
review of the substance of the interim measure.
Section 5. Court-ordered interim measures
Article 17 J. Court-ordered interim measures
A court shall have the same power of issuing an interim measure in
relation to arbitration proceedings, irrespective of whether their place is in
3The conditions set forth in article 17 I are intended to limit the number of circumstances in which
the court may refuse to enforce an interim measure. It would not be contrary to the level of harmonization sought to be achieved by these model provisions if a State were to adopt fewer circumstances in
which enforcement may be refused.
14 UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration
the territory of this State, as it has in relation to proceedings in courts. The
court shall exercise such power in accordance with its own procedures in
consideration of the specifi c features of international arbitration.
CHAPTER V. CONDUCT OF ARBITRAL PROCEEDINGS
Article 18. Equal treatment of parties
The parties shall be treated with equality and each party shall be given a
full opportunity of presenting his case.
Article 19. Determination of rules of procedure
(1) Subject to the provisions of this Law, the parties are free to agree on the
procedure to be followed by the arbitral tribunal in conducting the proceedings.
(2) Failing such agreement, the arbitral tribunal may, subject to the provisions of this Law, conduct the arbitration in such manner as it considers
appropriate. The power conferred upon the arbitral tribunal includes the
power to determine the admissibility, relevance, materiality and weight of
any evidence.
Article 20. Place of arbitration
(1) The parties are free to agree on the place of arbitration. Failing such
agreement, the place of arbitration shall be determined by the arbitral tribunal
having regard to the circumstances of the case, including the convenience
of the parties.
(2) Notwithstanding the provisions of paragraph (1) of this article, the arbitral tribunal may, unless otherwise agreed by the parties, meet at any place
it considers appropriate for consultation among its members, for hearing
witnesses, experts or the parties, or for inspection of goods, other property
or documents.
Article 21. Commencement of arbitral proceedings
Unless otherwise agreed by the parties, the arbitral proceedings in respect
of a particular dispute commence on the date on which a request for that
dispute to be referred to arbitration is received by the respondent.
Part One. UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration 15
Article 22. Language
(1) The parties are free to agree on the language or languages to be used
in the arbitral proceedings. Failing such agreement, the arbitral tribunal shall
determine the language or languages to be used in the proceedings. This
agreement or determination, unless otherwise specifi ed therein, shall apply
to any written statement by a party, any hearing and any award, decision or
other communication by the arbitral tribunal.
(2) The arbitral tribunal may order that any documentary evidence shall be
accompanied by a translation into the language or languages agreed upon
by the parties or determined by the arbitral tribunal.
Article 23. Statements of claim and defence
(1) Within the period of time agreed by the parties or determined by the
arbitral tribunal, the claimant shall state the facts supporting his claim, the
points at issue and the relief or remedy sought, and the respondent shall
state his defence in respect of these particulars, unless the parties have otherwise agreed as to the required elements of such statements. The parties may
submit with their statements all documents they consider to be relevant
or may add a reference to the documents or other evidence they will
submit.
(2) Unless otherwise agreed by the parties, either party may amend or
supplement his claim or defence during the course of the arbitral proceedings, unless the arbitral tribunal considers it inappropriate to allow such
amendment having regard to the delay in making it.
Article 24. Hearings and written proceedings
(1) Subject to any contrary agreement by the parties, the arbitral tribunal
shall decide whether to hold oral hearings for the presentation of evidence
or for oral argument, or whether the proceedings shall be conducted on the
basis of documents and other materials. However, unless the parties have
agreed that no hearings shall be held, the arbitral tribunal shall hold such
hearings at an appropriate stage of the proceedings, if so requested by a
party.
(2) The parties shall be given suffi cient advance notice of any hearing and
of any meeting of the arbitral tribunal for the purposes of inspection of
goods, other property or documents.
16 UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration
(3) All statements, documents or other information supplied to the arbitral
tribunal by one party shall be communicated to the other party. Also any
expert report or evidentiary document on which the arbitral tribunal may
rely in making its decision shall be communicated to the parties.
Article 25. Default of a party
Unless otherwise agreed by the parties, if, without showing suffi cient
cause,
(a) the claimant fails to communicate his statement of claim in
accordance with article 23(1), the arbitral tribunal shall terminate the
proceedings;
(b) the respondent fails to communicate his statement of defence in
accordance with article 23(1), the arbitral tribunal shall continue the proceedings without treating such failure in itself as an admission of the claimant’s
allegations;
(c) any party fails to appear at a hearing or to produce documentary
evidence, the arbitral tribunal may continue the proceedings and make the
award on the evidence before it.
Article 26. Expert appointed by arbitral tribunal
(1) Unless otherwise agreed by the parties, the arbitral tribunal
(a) may appoint one or more experts to report to it on specifi c issues
to be determined by the arbitral tribunal;
(b) may require a party to give the expert any relevant information or
to produce, or to provide access to, any relevant documents, goods or other
property for his inspection.
(2) Unless otherwise agreed by the parties, if a party so requests or if the
arbitral tribunal considers it necessary, the expert shall, after delivery of his
written or oral report, participate in a hearing where the parties have the
opportunity to put questions to him and to present expert witnesses in order
to testify on the points at issue.
Article 27. Court assistance in taking evidence
The arbitral tribunal or a party with the approval of the arbitral tribunal may
request from a competent court of this State assistance in taking evidence.
Part One. UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration 17
The court may execute the request within its competence and according to
its rules on taking evidence.
CHAPTER VI. MAKING OF AWARD AND
TERMINATION OF PROCEEDINGS
Article 28. Rules applicable to substance of dispute
(1) The arbitral tribunal shall decide the dispute in accordance with such
rules of law as are chosen by the parties as applicable to the substance of
the dispute. Any designation of the law or legal system of a given State
shall be construed, unless otherwise expressed, as directly referring to the
substantive law of that State and not to its confl ict of laws rules.
(2) Failing any designation by the parties, the arbitral tribunal shall apply the
law determined by the confl ict of laws rules which it considers applicable.
(3) The arbitral tribunal shall decide ex aequo et bono or as amiable compositeur only if the parties have expressly authorized it to do so.
(4) In all cases, the arbitral tribunal shall decide in accordance with the
terms of the contract and shall take into account the usages of the trade
applicable to the transaction.
Article 29. Decision-making by panel of arbitrators
In arbitral proceedings with more than one arbitrator, any decision of the
arbitral tribunal shall be made, unless otherwise agreed by the parties, by a
majority of all its members. However, questions of procedure may be decided
by a presiding arbitrator, if so authorized by the parties or all members of
the arbitral tribunal.
Article 30. Settlement
(1) If, during arbitral proceedings, the parties settle the dispute, the arbitral
tribunal shall terminate the proceedings and, if requested by the parties and
not objected to by the arbitral tribunal, record the settlement in the form of
an arbitral award on agreed terms.
(2) An award on agreed terms shall be made in accordance with the provisions of article 31 and shall state that it is an award. Such an award has the
same status and effect as any other award on the merits of the case.
18 UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration
Article 31. Form and contents of award
(1) The award shall be made in writing and shall be signed by the arbitrator or arbitrators. In arbitral proceedings with more than one arbitrator, the
signatures of the majority of all members of the arbitral tribunal shall
suffi ce, provided that the reason for any omitted signature is stated.
(2) The award shall state the reasons upon which it is based, unless the
parties have agreed that no reasons are to be given or the award is an award
on agreed terms under article 30.
(3) The award shall state its date and the place of arbitration as determined
in accordance with article 20(1). The award shall be deemed to have been
made at that place.
(4) After the award is made, a copy signed by the arbitrators in accordance
with paragraph (1) of this article shall be delivered to each party.
Article 32. Termination of proceedings
(1) The arbitral proceedings are terminated by the fi nal award or by an order
of the arbitral tribunal in accordance with paragraph (2) of this article.
(2) The arbitral tribunal shall issue an order for the termination of the arbitral proceedings when:
(a) the claimant withdraws his claim, unless the respondent objects
thereto and the arbitral tribunal recognizes a legitimate interest on his part
in obtaining a fi nal settlement of the dispute;
(b) the parties agree on the termination of the proceedings;
(c) the arbitral tribunal fi nds that the continuation of the proceedings
has for any other reason become unnecessary or impossible.
(3) The mandate of the arbitral tribunal terminates with the termination of
the arbitral proceedings, subject to the provisions of articles 33 and 34(4).
Article 33. Correction and interpretation of award; additional award
(1) Within thirty days of receipt of the award, unless another period of
time has been agreed upon by the parties:
(a) a party, with notice to the other party, may request the arbitral
Part One. UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration 19
tribunal to correct in the award any errors in computation, any clerical or
typographical errors or any errors of similar nature;
(b) if so agreed by the parties, a party, with notice to the other party,
may request the arbitral tribunal to give an interpretation of a specifi c point
or part of the award.
If the arbitral tribunal considers the request to be justifi ed, it shall make the
correction or give the interpretation within thirty days of receipt of the
request. The interpretation shall form part of the award.
(2) The arbitral tribunal may correct any error of the type referred to in
paragraph (1)(a) of this article on its own initiative within thirty days of the
date of the award.
(3) Unless otherwise agreed by the parties, a party, with notice to the other
party, may request, within thirty days of receipt of the award, the arbitral
tribunal to make an additional award as to claims presented in the arbitral
proceedings but omitted from the award. If the arbitral tribunal considers
the request to be justifi ed, it shall make the additional award within sixty
days.
(4) The arbitral tribunal may extend, if necessary, the period of time within
which it shall make a correction, interpretation or an additional award under
paragraph (1) or (3) of this article.
(5) The provisions of article 31 shall apply to a correction or interpretation
of the award or to an additional award.
CHAPTER VII. RECOURSE AGAINST AWARD
Article 34. Application for setting aside as exclusive
recourse against arbitral award
(1) Recourse to a court against an arbitral award may be made only by an
application for setting aside in accordance with paragraphs (2) and (3) of
this article.
(2) An arbitral award may be set aside by the court specifi ed in article 6
only if:
(a) the party making the application furnishes proof that:
(i) a party to the arbitration agreement referred to in article 7
was under some incapacity; or the said agreement is not
20 UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration
valid under the law to which the parties have subjected it or,
failing any indication thereon, under the law of this State; or
(ii) the party making the application was not given proper notice
of the appointment of an arbitrator or of the arbitral proceedings or was otherwise unable to present his case; or
(iii) the award deals with a dispute not contemplated by or not falling within the terms of the submission to arbitration, or contains
decisions on matters beyond the scope of the submission to
arbitration, provided that, if the decisions on matters submitted
to arbitration can be separated from those not so submitted,
only that part of the award which contains decisions on matters
not submitted to arbitration may be set aside; or
(iv) the composition of the arbitral tribunal or the arbitral procedure was not in accordance with the agreement of the parties,
unless such agreement was in confl ict with a provision of this
Law from which the parties cannot derogate, or, failing such
agreement, was not in accordance with this Law; or
(b) the court fi nds that:
(i) the subject-matter of the dispute is not capable of settlement
by arbitration under the law of this State; or
(ii) the award is in confl ict with the public policy of this State.
(3) An application for setting aside may not be made after three months
have elapsed from the date on which the party making that application had
received the award or, if a request had been made under article 33, from
the date on which that request had been disposed of by the arbitral
tribunal.
(4) The court, when asked to set aside an award, may, where appropriate
and so requested by a party, suspend the setting aside proceedings for a
period of time determined by it in order to give the arbitral tribunal an
opportunity to resume the arbitral proceedings or to take such other action
as in the arbitral tribunal’s opinion will eliminate the grounds for setting
aside.
CHAPTER VIII. RECOGNITION AND ENFORCEMENT OF AWARDS
Article 35. Recognition and enforcement
(1) An arbitral award, irrespective of the country in which it was made,
shall be recognized as binding and, upon application in writing to the
Part One. UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration 21
competent court, shall be enforced subject to the provisions of this article
and of article 36.
(2) The party relying on an award or applying for its enforcement shall
supply the original award or a copy thereof. If the award is not made in an
offi cial language of this State, the court may request the party to supply a
translation thereof into such language.4
(Article 35(2) has been amended by the Commission at its thirty-ninth session, in 2006)
Article 36. Grounds for refusing recognition or enforcement
(1) Recognition or enforcement of an arbitral award, irrespective of the
country in which it was made, may be refused only:
(a) at the request of the party against whom it is invoked, if that party
furnishes to the competent court where recognition or enforcement is sought
proof that:
(i) a party to the arbitration agreement referred to in article 7
was under some incapacity; or the said agreement is not
valid under the law to which the parties have subjected
it or, failing any indication thereon, under the law of the
country where the award was made; or
(ii) the party against whom the award is invoked was not given
proper notice of the appointment of an arbitrator or of the
arbitral proceedings or was otherwise unable to present his
case; or
(iii) the award deals with a dispute not contemplated by or not
falling within the terms of the submission to arbitration, or
it contains decisions on matters beyond the scope of the
submission to arbitration, provided that, if the decisions on
matters submitted to arbitration can be separated from those
not so submitted, that part of the award which contains decisions on matters submitted to arbitration may be recognized
and enforced; or
(iv) the composition of the arbitral tribunal or the arbitral procedure was not in accordance with the agreement of the parties
or, failing such agreement, was not in accordance with the
law of the country where the arbitration took place; or
4The conditions set forth in this paragraph are intended to set maximum standards. It would, thus,
not be contrary to the harmonization to be achieved by the model law if a State retained even less
onerous conditions.
22 UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration
(v) the award has not yet become binding on the parties or has
been set aside or suspended by a court of the country in
which, or under the law of which, that award was made; or
(b) if the court fi nds that:
(i) the subject-matter of the dispute is not capable of settlement
by arbitration under the law of this State; or
(ii) the recognition or enforcement of the award would be
contrary to the public policy of this State.
(2) If an application for setting aside or suspension of an award has been
made to a court referred to in paragraph (1)(a)(v) of this article, the court
where recognition or enforcement is sought may, if it considers it proper,
adjourn its decision and may also, on the application of the party claiming
recognition or enforcement of the award, order the other party to provide
appropriate security.
23
Part Two
Explanatory Note by the UNCITRAL secretariat
on the 1985 Model Law on International Commercial
Arbitration as amended in 20061
1. The UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration (“the
Model Law”) was adopted by the United Nations Commission on International
Trade Law (UNCITRAL) on 21 June 1985, at the end of the eighteenth session of
the Commission. The General Assembly, in its resolution 40/72 of 11 December
1985, recommended “that all States give due consideration to the Model Law on
International Commercial Arbitration, in view of the desirability of uniformity of
the law of arbitral procedures and the specifi c needs of international commercial
arbitration practice”. The Model Law was amended by UNCITRAL on 7 July 2006,
at the thirty-ninth session of the Commission (see below, paragraphs 4, 19, 20, 27,
29 and 53). The General Assembly, in its resolution 61/33 of 4 December 2006,
recommended “that all States give favourable consideration to the enactment of the
revised articles of the UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration, or the revised UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration, when they enact or revise their laws (…)”.
2. The Model Law constitutes a sound basis for the desired harmonization and
improvement of national laws. It covers all stages of the arbitral process from the
arbitration agreement to the recognition and enforcement of the arbitral award and
refl ects a worldwide consensus on the principles and important issues of international arbitration practice. It is acceptable to States of all regions and the different
legal or economic systems of the world. Since its adoption by UNCITRAL, the
Model Law has come to represent the accepted international legislative standard for
a modern arbitration law and a signifi cant number of jurisdictions have enacted
arbitration legislation based on the Model Law.
3. The form of a model law was chosen as the vehicle for harmonization and
modernization in view of the fl exibility it gives to States in preparing new arbitration laws. Notwithstanding that fl exibility, and in order to increase the likelihood
of achieving a satisfactory degree of harmonization, States are encouraged to make
1This note was prepared by the secretariat of the United Nations Commission on International
Trade Law (UNCITRAL) for informational purposes only; it is not an offi cial commentary on the Model
Law. A commentary prepared by the Secretariat on an early draft of the Model Law appears in document
A/CN.9/264 (reproduced in UNCITRAL Yearbook, vol. XVI — 1985, United Nations publication, Sales
No. E.87.V.4).
24 UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration
as few changes as possible when incorporating the Model Law into their legal systems. Efforts to minimize variation from the text adopted by UNCITRAL are also
expected to increase the visibility of harmonization, thus enhancing the confi dence
of foreign parties, as the primary users of international arbitration, in the reliability
of arbitration law in the enacting State.
4. The revision of the Model Law adopted in 2006 includes article 2 A, which is
designed to facilitate interpretation by reference to internationally accepted principles and is aimed at promoting a uniform understanding of the Model Law. Other
substantive amendments to the Model Law relate to the form of the arbitration
agreement and to interim measures. The original 1985 version of the provision on
the form of the arbitration agreement (article 7) was modelled on the language used
in article II (2) of the Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign
Arbitral Awards (New York, 1958) (“the New York Convention”). The revision of
article 7 is intended to address evolving practice in international trade and technological developments. The extensive revision of article 17 on interim measures was
considered necessary in light of the fact that such measures are increasingly relied
upon in the practice of international commercial arbitration. The revision also
includes an enforcement regime for such measures in recognition of the fact that
the effectiveness of arbitration frequently depends upon the possibility of enforcing
interim measures. The new provisions are contained in a new chapter of the Model
Law on interim measures and preliminary orders (chapter IV A).
A. Background to the Model Law
5. The Model Law was developed to address considerable disparities in national
laws on arbitration. The need for improvement and harmonization was based on
fi ndings that national laws were often particularly inappropriate for international
cases.
1. Inadequacy of domestic laws
6. Recurrent inadequacies to be found in outdated national laws include provisions
that equate the arbitral process with court litigation and fragmentary provisions that
fail to address all relevant substantive law issues. Even most of those laws that
appear to be up-to-date and comprehensive were drafted with domestic arbitration
primarily, if not exclusively, in mind. While this approach is understandable in view
of the fact that even today the bulk of cases governed by arbitration law would be
of a purely domestic nature, the unfortunate consequence is that traditional local
concepts are imposed on international cases and the needs of modern practice are
often not met.
7. The expectations of the parties as expressed in a chosen set of arbitration rules
or a “one-off” arbitration agreement may be frustrated, especially by mandatory
provisions of applicable law. Unexpected and undesired restrictions found in national
Part Two. Explanatory Note by the UNCITRAL secretariat 25
laws may prevent the parties, for example, from submitting future disputes to arbitration, from selecting the arbitrator freely, or from having the arbitral proceedings
conducted according to agreed rules of procedure and with no more court involvement than appropriate. Frustration may also ensue from non-mandatory provisions
that may impose undesired requirements on unwary parties who may not think about
the need to provide otherwise when drafting the arbitration agreement. Even the
absence of any legislative provision may cause diffi culties simply by leaving unanswered some of the many procedural issues relevant in arbitration and not always
settled in the arbitration agreement. The Model Law is intended to reduce the risk
of such possible frustration, diffi culties or surprise.
2. Disparity between national laws
8. Problems stemming from inadequate arbitration laws or from the absence of
specifi c legislation governing arbitration are aggravated by the fact that national
laws differ widely. Such differences are a frequent source of concern in international
arbitration, where at least one of the parties is, and often both parties are, confronted
with foreign and unfamiliar provisions and procedures. Obtaining a full and precise
account of the law applicable to the arbitration is, in such circumstances often
expensive, impractical or impossible.
9. Uncertainty about the local law with the inherent risk of frustration may
adversely affect the functioning of the arbitral process and also impact on the selection of the place of arbitration. Due to such uncertainty, a party may hesitate or
refuse to agree to a place, which for practical reasons would otherwise be appropriate. The range of places of arbitration acceptable to parties is thus widened and the
smooth functioning of the arbitral proceedings is enhanced where States adopt the
Model Law, which is easily recognizable, meets the specifi c needs of international
commercial arbitration and provides an international standard based on solutions
acceptable to parties from different legal systems.
B. Salient features of the Model Law
1. Special procedural regime for international commercial arbitration
10. The principles and solutions adopted in the Model Law aim at reducing or
eliminating the above-mentioned concerns and diffi culties. As a response to the
inadequacies and disparities of national laws, the Model Law presents a special legal
regime tailored to international commercial arbitration, without affecting any relevant treaty in force in the State adopting the Model Law. While the Model Law
was designed with international commercial arbitration in mind, it offers a set of
basic rules that are not, in and of themselves, unsuitable to any other type of arbitration. States may thus consider extending their enactment of the Model Law to
cover also domestic disputes, as a number of enacting States already have.
26 UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration
(a) Substantive and territorial scope of application
11. Article 1 defi nes the scope of application of the Model Law by reference to
the notion of “international commercial arbitration”. The Model Law defi nes an
arbitration as international if “the parties to an arbitration agreement have, at the
time of the conclusion of that agreement, their places of business in different States”
(article 1 (3)). The vast majority of situations commonly regarded as international
will meet this criterion. In addition, article 1 (3) broadens the notion of internationality so that the Model Law also covers cases where the place of arbitration, the
place of contract performance, or the place of the subject-matter of the dispute is
situated outside the State where the parties have their place of business, or cases
where the parties have expressly agreed that the subject-matter of the arbitration
agreement relates to more than one country. Article 1 thus recognizes extensively
the freedom of the parties to submit a dispute to the legal regime established pursuant
to the Model Law.
12. In respect of the term “commercial”, the Model Law provides no strict defi nition. The footnote to article 1 (1) calls for “a wide interpretation” and offers an
illustrative and open-ended list of relationships that might be described as commercial in nature, “whether contractual or not”. The purpose of the footnote is to
circumvent any technical diffi culty that may arise, for example, in determining which
transactions should be governed by a specifi c body of “commercial law” that may
exist in some legal systems.
13. Another aspect of applicability is the territorial scope of application. The principle embodied in article 1 (2) is that the Model Law as enacted in a given State
applies only if the place of arbitration is in the territory of that State. However,
article 1 (2) also contains important exceptions to that principle, to the effect that
certain articles apply, irrespective of whether the place of arbitration is in the enacting State or elsewhere (or, as the case may be, even before the place of arbitration
is determined). These articles are the following: articles 8 (1) and 9, which deal
with the recognition of arbitration agreements, including their compatibility with
interim measures ordered by a court, article 17 J on court-ordered interim measures,
articles 17 H and 17 I on the recognition and enforcement of interim measures
ordered by an arbitral tribunal, and articles 35 and 36 on the recognition and
enforcement of arbitral awards.
14. The territorial criterion governing most of the provisions of the Model Law
was adopted for the sake of certainty and in view of the following facts. In most
legal systems, the place of arbitration is the exclusive criterion for determining the
applicability of national law and, where the national law allows parties to choose
the procedural law of a State other than that where the arbitration takes place,
experience shows that parties rarely make use of that possibility. Incidentally, enactment of the Model Law reduces any need for the parties to choose a “foreign” law,
since the Model Law grants the parties wide freedom in shaping the rules of the
arbitral proceedings. In addition to designating the law governing the arbitral
procedure, the territorial criterion is of considerable practical importance in respect
of articles 11, 13, 14, 16, 27 and 34, which entrust State courts at the place of
Part Two. Explanatory Note by the UNCITRAL secretariat 27
arbitration with functions of supervision and assistance to arbitration. It should be
noted that the territorial criterion legally triggered by the parties’ choice regarding
the place of arbitration does not limit the arbitral tribunal’s ability to meet at any
place it considers appropriate for the conduct of the proceedings, as provided by
article 20 (2).
(b) Delimitation of court assistance and supervision
15. Recent amendments to arbitration laws reveal a trend in favour of limiting and
clearly defi ning court involvement in international commercial arbitration. This is
justifi ed in view of the fact that the parties to an arbitration agreement make a
conscious decision to exclude court jurisdiction and prefer the fi nality and expediency of the arbitral process.
16. In this spirit, the Model Law envisages court involvement in the following
instances. A fi rst group comprises issues of appointment, challenge and termination
of the mandate of an arbitrator (articles 11, 13 and 14), jurisdiction of the arbitral
tribunal (article 16) and setting aside of the arbitral award (article 34). These
instances are listed in article 6 as functions that should be entrusted, for the sake
of centralization, specialization and effi ciency, to a specially designated court or,
with respect to articles 11, 13 and 14, possibly to another authority (for example,
an arbitral institution or a chamber of commerce). A second group comprises issues
of court assistance in taking evidence (article 27), recognition of the arbitration
agreement, including its compatibility with court-ordered interim measures (articles 8 and 9), court-ordered interim measures (article 17 J), and recognition and
enforcement of interim measures (articles 17 H and 17 I) and of arbitral awards
(articles 35 and 36).
17. Beyond the instances in these two groups, “no court shall intervene, in matters
governed by this Law”. Article 5 thus guarantees that all instances of possible court
intervention are found in the piece of legislation enacting the Model Law, except
for matters not regulated by it (for example, consolidation of arbitral proceedings,
contractual relationship between arbitrators and parties or arbitral institutions, or
fi xing of costs and fees, including deposits). Protecting the arbitral process from
unpredictable or disruptive court interference is essential to parties who choose
arbitration (in particular foreign parties).
2. Arbitration agreement
18. Chapter II of the Model Law deals with the arbitration agreement, including
its recognition by courts.
(a) Defi nition and form of arbitration agreement
19. The original 1985 version of the provision on the defi nition and form of
arbitration agreement (article 7) closely followed article II (2) of the New York
28 UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration
Convention, which requires that an arbitration agreement be in writing. If the parties
have agreed to arbitrate, but they entered into the arbitration agreement in a manner
that does not meet the form requirement, any party may have grounds to object to
the jurisdiction of the arbitral tribunal. It was pointed out by practitioners that, in
a number of situations, the drafting of a written document was impossible or
impractical. In such cases, where the willingness of the parties to arbitrate was not
in question, the validity of the arbitration agreement should be recognized. For that
reason, article 7 was amended in 2006 to better conform to international contract
practices. In amending article 7, the Commission adopted two options, which refl ect
two different approaches on the question of defi nition and form of arbitration agreement. The fi rst approach follows the detailed structure of the original 1985 text. It
confi rms the validity and effect of a commitment by the parties to submit to arbitration an existing dispute (“compromis”) or a future dispute (“clause compromissoire”). It follows the New York Convention in requiring the written form of the
arbitration agreement but recognizes a record of the “contents” of the agreement
“in any form” as equivalent to traditional “writing”. The agreement to arbitrate may
be entered into in any form (e.g. including orally) as long as the content of the
agreement is recorded. This new rule is signifi cant in that it no longer requires
signatures of the parties or an exchange of messages between the parties. It modernizes the language referring to the use of electronic commerce by adopting wording inspired from the 1996 UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Commerce and
the 2005 United Nations Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in
International Contracts. It covers the situation of “an exchange of statements of
claim and defence in which the existence of an agreement is alleged by one party
and not denied by another”. It also states that “the reference in a contract to any
document” (for example, general conditions) “containing an arbitration clause constitutes an arbitration agreement in writing provided that the reference is such as
to make that clause part of the contract”. It thus clarifi es that applicable contract
law remains available to determine the level of consent necessary for a party to
become bound by an arbitration agreement allegedly made “by reference”. The
second approach defi nes the arbitration agreement in a manner that omits any form
requirement. No preference was expressed by the Commission in favour of either
option I or II, both of which are offered for enacting States to consider, depending
on their particular needs, and by reference to the legal context in which the Model
Law is enacted, including the general contract law of the enacting State. Both options are intended to preserve the enforceability of arbitration agreements under the
New York Convention.
20. In that respect, the Commission also adopted, at its thirty-ninth session in
2006, a “Recommendation regarding the interpretation of article II, paragraph 2,
and article VII, paragraph 1, of the Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement
of Foreign Arbitral Awards, done in New York, 10 June 1958” (A/61/17, Annex 2).2
The General Assembly, in its resolution 61/33 of 4 December 2006 noted that “in
connection with the modernization of articles of the Model Law, the promotion of
a uniform interpretation and application of the Convention on the Recognition and
2Reproduced in Part Three hereafter.
Part Two. Explanatory Note by the UNCITRAL secretariat 29
Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards, done in New York, 10 June 1958, is particularly timely”. The Recommendation was drafted in recognition of the widening
use of electronic commerce and enactments of domestic legislation as well as case
law, which are more favourable than the New York Convention in respect of the
form requirement governing arbitration agreements, arbitration proceedings, and the
enforcement of arbitral awards. The Recommendation encourages States to apply
article II (2) of the New York Convention “recognizing that the circumstances
described therein are not exhaustive”. In addition, the Recommendation encourages
States to adopt the revised article 7 of the Model Law. Both options of the revised
article 7 establish a more favourable regime for the recognition and enforcement of
arbitral awards than that provided under the New York Convention. By virtue of
the “more favourable law provision” contained in article VII (1) of the New York
Convention, the Recommendation clarifi es that “any interested party” should be
allowed “to avail itself of rights it may have, under the law or treaties of the country
where an arbitration agreement is sought to be relied upon, to seek recognition of
the validity of such an arbitration agreement”.
(b) Arbitration agreement and the courts
21. Articles 8 and 9 deal with two important aspects of the complex relationship
between the arbitration agreement and the resort to courts. Modelled on article II (3)
of the New York Convention, article 8 (1) of the Model Law places any court under
an obligation to refer the parties to arbitration if the court is seized with a claim
on the same subject-matter unless it fi nds that the arbitration agreement is null and
void, inoperative or incapable of being performed. The referral is dependent on a
request, which a party may make not later than when submitting its fi rst statement
on the substance of the dispute. This provision, where adopted by a State enacting
the Model Law, is by its nature binding only on the courts of that State. However,
since article 8 is not limited in scope to agreements providing for arbitration to take
place in the enacting State, it promotes the universal recognition and effect of
international commercial arbitration agreements.
22. Article 9 expresses the principle that any interim measures of protection that
may be obtained from courts under their procedural law (for example, pre-award
attachments) are compatible with an arbitration agreement. That provision is ultimately addressed to the courts of any State, insofar as it establishes the compatibility
between interim measures possibly issued by any court and an arbitration agreement,
irrespective of the place of arbitration. Wherever a request for interim measures
may be made to a court, it may not be relied upon, under the Model Law, as a
waiver or an objection against the existence or effect of the arbitration agreement.
3. Composition of arbitral tribunal
23. Chapter III contains a number of detailed provisions on appointment, challenge,
termination of mandate and replacement of an arbitrator. The chapter illustrates the
30 UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration
general approach taken by the Model Law in eliminating diffi culties that arise from
inappropriate or fragmentary laws or rules. First, the approach recognizes the freedom of the parties to determine, by reference to an existing set of arbitration rules
or by an ad hoc agreement, the procedure to be followed, subject to the fundamental
requirements of fairness and justice. Secondly, where the parties have not exercised
their freedom to lay down the rules of procedure or they have failed to cover a particular issue, the Model Law ensures, by providing a set of suppletive rules, that the
arbitration may commence and proceed effectively until the dispute is resolved.
24. Where under any procedure, agreed upon by the parties or based upon the
suppletive rules of the Model Law, diffi culties arise in the process of appointment,
challenge or termination of the mandate of an arbitrator, articles 11, 13 and 14
provide for assistance by courts or other competent authorities designated by the
enacting State. In view of the urgency of matters relating to the composition of the
arbitral tribunal or its ability to function, and in order to reduce the risk and effect
of any dilatory tactics, short time-periods are set and decisions rendered by courts
or other authorities on such matters are not appealable.
4. Jurisdiction of arbitral tribunal
(a) Competence to rule on own jurisdiction
25. Article 16 (1) adopts the two important (not yet generally recognized) principles of “Kompetenz-Kompetenz” and of separability or autonomy of the arbitration
clause. “Kompetenz-Kompetenz” means that the arbitral tribunal may independently
rule on the question of whether it has jurisdiction, including any objections with
respect to the existence or validity of the arbitration agreement, without having to
resort to a court. Separability means that an arbitration clause shall be treated as
an agreement independent of the other terms of the contract. As a consequence, a
decision by the arbitral tribunal that the contract is null and void shall not entail
ipso jure the invalidity of the arbitration clause. Detailed provisions in paragraph (2)
require that any objections relating to the arbitrators’ jurisdiction be made at the
earliest possible time.
26. The competence of the arbitral tribunal to rule on its own jurisdiction (i.e. on
the foundation, content and extent of its mandate and power) is, of course, subject
to court control. Where the arbitral tribunal rules as a preliminary question that it
has jurisdiction, article 16 (3) allows for immediate court control in order to avoid
waste of time and money. However, three procedural safeguards are added to reduce
the risk and effect of dilatory tactics: short time-period for resort to court (30 days),
court decision not appealable, and discretion of the arbitral tribunal to continue the
proceedings and make an award while the matter is pending before the court. In
those cases where the arbitral tribunal decides to combine its decision on jurisdiction with an award on the merits, judicial review on the question of jurisdiction is
available in setting aside proceedings under article 34 or in enforcement proceedings
under article 36.
Part Two. Explanatory Note by the UNCITRAL secretariat 31
(b) Power to order interim measures and preliminary orders
27. Chapter IV A on interim measures and preliminary orders was adopted by the
Commission in 2006. It replaces article 17 of the original 1985 version of the Model
Law. Section 1 provides a generic defi nition of interim measures and sets out the
conditions for granting such measures. An important innovation of the revision lies
in the establishment (in section 4) of a regime for the recognition and enforcement
of interim measures, which was modelled, as appropriate, on the regime for the
recognition and enforcement of arbitral awards under articles 35 and 36 of the
Model Law.
28. Section 2 of chapter IV A deals with the application for, and conditions for
the granting of, preliminary orders. Preliminary orders provide a means for preserving the status quo until the arbitral tribunal issues an interim measure adopting or
modifying the preliminary order. Article 17 B (1) provides that “a party may, without
notice to any other party, make a request for an interim measure together with an
application for a preliminary order directing a party not to frustrate the purpose of
the interim measure requested”. Article 17 B (2) permits an arbitral tribunal to grant
a preliminary order if “it considers that prior disclosure of the request for the interim
measure to the party against whom it is directed risks frustrating the purpose of the
measure”. Article 17 C contains carefully drafted safeguards for the party against
whom the preliminary order is directed, such as prompt notifi cation of the application for the preliminary order and of the preliminary order itself (if any), and an
opportunity for that party to present its case “at the earliest practicable time”. In
any event, a preliminary order has a maximum duration of twenty days and, while
binding on the parties, is not subject to court enforcement and does not constitute
an award. The term “preliminary order” is used to emphasize its limited nature.
29. Section 3 sets out rules applicable to both preliminary orders and interim
measures.
30. Section 5 includes article 17 J on interim measures ordered by courts in
support of arbitration, and provides that “a court shall have the same power of
issuing an interim measure in relation to arbitration proceedings irrespective of
whether their place is in the territory of the enacting State, as it has in relation to
proceedings in courts”. That article has been added in 2006 to put it beyond any doubt
that the existence of an arbitration agreement does not infringe on the powers of the
competent court to issue interim measures and that the party to such an arbitration
agreement is free to approach the court with a request to order interim measures.
5. Conduct of arbitral proceedings
31. Chapter V provides the legal framework for a fair and effective conduct of the
arbitral proceedings. Article 18, which sets out fundamental requirements of procedural justice, and article 19 on the rights and powers to determine the rules of
procedure, express principles that are central to the Model Law.
32 UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration
(a) Fundamental procedural rights of a party
32. Article 18 embodies the principles that the parties shall be treated with equality
and given a full opportunity of presenting their case. A number of provisions illustrate those principles. For example, article 24 (1) provides that, unless the parties
have agreed that no oral hearings be held for the presentation of evidence or for
oral argument, the arbitral tribunal shall hold such hearings at an appropriate stage
of the proceedings, if so requested by a party. It should be noted that article 24 (1)
deals only with the general entitlement of a party to oral hearings (as an alternative
to proceedings conducted on the basis of documents and other materials) and not
with the procedural aspects, such as the length, number or timing of hearings.
33. Another illustration of those principles relates to evidence by an expert
appointed by the arbitral tribunal. Article 26 (2) requires the expert, after delivering
his or her written or oral report, to participate in a hearing where the parties may
put questions to the expert and present expert witnesses to testify on the points at
issue, if such a hearing is requested by a party or deemed necessary by the arbitral
tribunal. As another provision aimed at ensuring fairness, objectivity and impartiality, article 24 (3) provides that all statements, documents and other information
supplied to the arbitral tribunal by one party shall be communicated to the other
party, and that any expert report or evidentiary document on which the arbitral tribunal may rely in making its decision shall be communicated to the parties. In order
to enable the parties to be present at any hearing and at any meeting of the arbitral
tribunal for inspection purposes, they shall be given suffi cient notice in advance
(article 24 (2)).
(b) Determination of rules of procedure
34. Article 19 guarantees the parties’ freedom to agree on the procedure to be
followed by the arbitral tribunal in conducting the proceedings, subject to a few
mandatory provisions on procedure, and empowers the arbitral tribunal, failing
agreement by the parties, to conduct the arbitration in such a manner as it considers
appropriate. The power conferred upon the arbitral tribunal includes the power to
determine the admissibility, relevance, materiality and weight of any evidence.
35. Autonomy of the parties in determining the rules of procedure is of special
importance in international cases since it allows the parties to select or tailor the
rules according to their specifi c wishes and needs, unimpeded by traditional and
possibly confl icting domestic concepts, thus obviating the earlier mentioned risk of
frustration or surprise (see above, paras. 7 and 9). The supplementary discretion of
the arbitral tribunal is equally important in that it allows the tribunal to tailor the
conduct of the proceedings to the specifi c features of the case without being hindered
by any restraint that may stem from traditional local law, including any domestic
rule on evidence. Moreover, it provides grounds for displaying initiative in solving
any procedural question not regulated in the arbitration agreement or the Model
Law.
Part Two. Explanatory Note by the UNCITRAL secretariat 33
36. In addition to the general provisions of article 19, other provisions in the
Model Law recognize party autonomy and, failing agreement, empower the arbitral
tribunal to decide on certain matters. Examples of particular practical importance
in international cases are article 20 on the place of arbitration and article 22 on the
language to be used in the proceedings.
(c) Default of a party
37. The arbitral proceedings may be continued in the absence of a party, provided
that due notice has been given. This applies, in particular, to the failure of the
respondent to communicate its statement of defence (article 25 (b)). The arbitral
tribunal may also continue the proceedings where a party fails to appear at a hearing or to produce documentary evidence without showing suffi cient cause for the
failure (article 25 (c)). However, if the claimant fails to submit its statement of
claim, the arbitral tribunal is obliged to terminate the proceedings (article 25 (a)).
38. Provisions that empower the arbitral tribunal to carry out its task even if one
of the parties does not participate are of considerable practical importance. As
experience shows, it is not uncommon for one of the parties to have little interest
in cooperating or expediting matters. Such provisions therefore provide international
commercial arbitration its necessary effectiveness, within the limits of fundamental
requirements of procedural justice.
6. Making of award and termination of proceedings
(a) Rules applicable to substance of dispute
39. Article 28 deals with the determination of the rules of law governing the
substance of the dispute. Under paragraph (1), the arbitral tribunal decides the dispute in accordance with the rules of law chosen by the parties. This provision is
signifi cant in two respects. It grants the parties the freedom to choose the applicable
substantive law, which is important where the national law does not clearly or fully
recognize that right. In addition, by referring to the choice of “rules of law” instead
of “law”, the Model Law broadens the range of options available to the parties as
regards the designation of the law applicable to the substance of the dispute. For
example, parties may agree on rules of law that have been elaborated by an international forum but have not yet been incorporated into any national legal system.
Parties could also choose directly an instrument such as the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods as the body of substantive
law governing the arbitration, without having to refer to the national law of any
State party to that Convention. The power of the arbitral tribunal, on the other hand,
follows more traditional lines. When the parties have not chosen the applicable law,
the arbitral tribunal shall apply the law (i.e., the national law) determined by the
confl ict-of-laws rules that it considers applicable.
34 UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration
40. Article 28 (3) recognizes that the parties may authorize the arbitral tribunal to
decide the dispute ex aequo et bono or as amiables compositeur. This type of arbitration (where the arbitral tribunal may decide the dispute on the basis of principles
it believes to be just, without having to refer to any particular body of law) is currently not known or used in all legal systems. The Model Law does not intend to
regulate this area. It simply calls the attention of the parties on the need to provide
clarifi cation in the arbitration agreement and specifi cally to empower the arbitral
tribunal. However, paragraph (4) makes it clear that in all cases where the dispute
relates to a contract (including arbitration ex aequo et bono) the arbitral tribunal
must decide in accordance with the terms of the contract and shall take into account
the usages of the trade applicable to the transaction.
(b) Making of award and other decisions
41. In its rules on the making of the award (articles 29-31), the Model Law focuses
on the situation where the arbitral tribunal consists of more than one arbitrator. In
such a situation, any award and other decision shall be made by a majority of the
arbitrators, except on questions of procedure, which may be left to a presiding
arbitrator. The majority principle applies also to the signing of the award, provided
that the reason for any omitted signature is stated.
42. Article 31 (3) provides that the award shall state the place of arbitration and
shall be deemed to have been made at that place. The effect of the deeming provision is to emphasize that the fi nal making of the award constitutes a legal act, which
in practice does not necessarily coincide with one factual event. For the same reason
that the arbitral proceedings need not be carried out at the place designated as the
legal “place of arbitration”, the making of the award may be completed through
deliberations held at various places, by telephone or correspondence. In addition,
the award does not have to be signed by the arbitrators physically gathering at the
same place.
43. The arbitral award must be in writing and state its date. It must also state the
reasons on which it is based, unless the parties have agreed otherwise or the award
is “on agreed terms” (i.e., an award that records the terms of an amicable settlement
by the parties). It may be added that the Model Law neither requires nor prohibits
“dissenting opinions”.
7. Recourse against award
44. The disparity found in national laws as regards the types of recourse against
an arbitral award available to the parties presents a major diffi culty in harmonizing
international arbitration legislation. Some outdated laws on arbitration, by establishing parallel regimes for recourse against arbitral awards or against court decisions,
provide various types of recourse, various (and often long) time periods for exercising the recourse, and extensive lists of grounds on which recourse may be based.
Part Two. Explanatory Note by the UNCITRAL secretariat 35
That situation (of considerable concern to those involved in international commercial
arbitration) is greatly improved by the Model Law, which provides uniform grounds
upon which (and clear time periods within which) recourse against an arbitral award
may be made.
(a) Application for setting aside as exclusive recourse
45. The fi rst measure of improvement is to allow only one type of recourse, to
the exclusion of any other recourse regulated in any procedural law of the State in
question. Article 34 (1) provides that the sole recourse against an arbitral award is
by application for setting aside, which must be made within three months of receipt
of the award (article 34 (3)). In regulating “recourse” (i.e., the means through which
a party may actively “attack” the award), article 34 does not preclude a party from
seeking court control by way of defence in enforcement proceedings (articles 35
and 36). Article 34 is limited to action before a court (i.e., an organ of the judicial
system of a State). However, a party is not precluded from appealing to an arbitral
tribunal of second instance if the parties have agreed on such a possibility (as is
common in certain commodity trades).
(b) Grounds for setting aside
46. As a further measure of improvement, the Model Law lists exhaustively the
grounds on which an award may be set aside. This list essentially mirrors that
contained in article 36 (1), which is taken from article V of the New York Convention. The grounds provided in article 34 (2) are set out in two categories. Grounds
which are to be proven by one party are as follows: lack of capacity of the parties
to conclude an arbitration agreement; lack of a valid arbitration agreement; lack of
notice of appointment of an arbitrator or of the arbitral proceedings or inability of
a party to present its case; the award deals with matters not covered by the submission to arbitration; the composition of the arbitral tribunal or the conduct of arbitral
proceedings are contrary to the effective agreement of the parties or, failing such
agreement, to the Model Law. Grounds that a court may consider of its own initiative are as follows: non-arbitrability of the subject-matter of the dispute or violation
of public policy (which is to be understood as serious departures from fundamental
notions of procedural justice).
47. The approach under which the grounds for setting aside an award under the
Model Law parallel the grounds for refusing recognition and enforcement of the
award under article V of the New York Convention is reminiscent of the approach
taken in the European Convention on International Commercial Arbitration (Geneva,
1961). Under article IX of the latter Convention, the decision of a foreign court to
set aside an award for a reason other than the ones listed in article V of the New
York Convention does not constitute a ground for refusing enforcement. The Model
Law takes this philosophy one step further by directly limiting the reasons for
setting aside.
36 UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration
48. Although the grounds for setting aside as set out in article 34 (2) are almost
identical to those for refusing recognition or enforcement as set out in article 36 (1),
a practical difference should be noted. An application for setting aside under article 34 (2) may only be made to a court in the State where the award was rendered
whereas an application for enforcement might be made in a court in any State. For
that reason, the grounds relating to public policy and non-arbitrability may vary in
substance with the law applied by the court (in the State of setting aside or in the
State of enforcement).
8. Recognition and enforcement of awards
49. The eighth and last chapter of the Model Law deals with the recognition and
enforcement of awards. Its provisions refl ect the signifi cant policy decision that the
same rules should apply to arbitral awards whether made in the country of enforcement or abroad, and that those rules should follow closely the New York
Convention.
(a) Towards uniform treatment of all awards irrespective of country of origin
50. By treating awards rendered in international commercial arbitration in a uniform manner irrespective of where they were made, the Model Law distinguishes
between “international” and “non-international” awards instead of relying on the
traditional distinction between “foreign” and “domestic” awards. This new line is
based on substantive grounds rather than territorial borders, which are inappropriate
in view of the limited importance of the place of arbitration in international cases.
The place of arbitration is often chosen for reasons of convenience of the parties
and the dispute may have little or no connection with the State where the arbitration
legally takes place. Consequently, the recognition and enforcement of “international”
awards, whether “foreign” or “domestic”, should be governed by the same
provisions.
51. By modelling the recognition and enforcement rules on the relevant provisions
of the New York Convention, the Model Law supplements, without confl icting with,
the regime of recognition and enforcement created by that successful Convention.
(b) Procedural conditions of recognition and enforcement
52. Under article 35 (1) any arbitral award, irrespective of the country in which
it was made, shall be recognized as binding and enforceable, subject to the provisions of article 35 (2) and of article 36 (the latter of which sets forth the grounds
on which recognition or enforcement may be refused). Based on the above consideration of the limited importance of the place of arbitration in international cases
and the desire of overcoming territorial restrictions, reciprocity is not included as
a condition for recognition and enforcement.
Part Two. Explanatory Note by the UNCITRAL secretariat 37
53. The Model Law does not lay down procedural details of recognition and
enforcement, which are left to national procedural laws and practices. The Model
Law merely sets certain conditions for obtaining enforcement under article 35 (2).
It was amended in 2006 to liberalize formal requirements and refl ect the amendment
made to article 7 on the form of the arbitration agreement. Presentation of a copy
of the arbitration agreement is no longer required under article 35 (2).
(c) Grounds for refusing recognition or enforcement
54. Although the grounds on which recognition or enforcement may be refused
under the Model Law are identical to those listed in article V of the New York
Convention, the grounds listed in the Model Law are relevant not only to foreign
awards but to all awards rendered in the sphere of application of the piece of legislation enacting the Model Law. Generally, it was deemed desirable to adopt, for
the sake of harmony, the same approach and wording as this important Convention.
However, the fi rst ground on the list as contained in the New York Convention
(which provides that recognition and enforcement may be refused if “the parties to
the arbitration agreement were, under the law applicable to them, under some
incapacity”) was modifi ed since it was viewed as containing an incomplete and
potentially misleading confl ict-of-laws rule.
Further information on the Model Law may be obtained from:
UNCITRAL secretariat
Vienna International Centre
P.O. Box 500
1400 Vienna
Austria
Telephone: (+43-1) 26060-4060
Telefax: (+43-1) 26060-5813
Internet: www.uncitral.org
E-mail: uncitral@uncitral.org

39
Part Three
Recommendation regarding the interpretation of article II,
paragraph 2, and article VII, paragraph 1, of the
Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign
Arbitral Awards, done in New York, 10 June 1958, adopted
by the United Nations Commission on International Trade
Law on 7 July 2006 at its thirty-ninth session
The United Nations Commission on International Trade Law,
Recalling General Assembly resolution 2205 (XXI) of 17 December 1966,
which established the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law with
the object of promoting the progressive harmonization and unifi cation of the law
of international trade by, inter alia, promoting ways and means of ensuring a uniform
interpretation and application of international conventions and uniform laws in the
fi eld of the law of international trade,
Conscious of the fact that the different legal, social and economic systems of
the world, together with different levels of development, are represented in the
Commission,
Recalling successive resolutions of the General Assembly reaffi rming the mandate of the Commission as the core legal body within the United Nations system
in the fi eld of international trade law to coordinate legal activities in this fi eld,
Convinced that the wide adoption of the Convention on the Recognition and
Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards, done in New York on 10 June 1958,1
has
been a signifi cant achievement in the promotion of the rule of law, particularly in
the fi eld of international trade,
Recalling that the Conference of Plenipotentiaries which prepared and opened
the Convention for signature adopted a resolution, which states, inter alia, that the
Conference “considers that greater uniformity of national laws on arbitration would
further the effectiveness of arbitration in the settlement of private law disputes”,
Bearing in mind differing interpretations of the form requirements under the
Convention that result in part from differences of expression as between the fi ve
equally authentic texts of the Convention,
1United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 330, No. 4739.
40 UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration
Taking into account article VII, paragraph 1, of the Convention, a purpose of
which is to enable the enforcement of foreign arbitral awards to the greatest extent,
in particular by recognizing the right of any interested party to avail itself of law
or treaties of the country where the award is sought to be relied upon, including
where such law or treaties offer a regime more favourable than the Convention,
Considering the wide use of electronic commerce,
Taking into account international legal instruments, such as the 1985
UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration,2
as subsequently
revised, particularly with respect to article 7,3
the UNCITRAL Model Law on
Electronic Commerce,4
the UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Signatures5
and
the United Nations Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in International Contracts,6
Taking into account also enactments of domestic legislation, as well as case
law, more favourable than the Convention in respect of form requirement governing
arbitration agreements, arbitration proceedings and the enforcement of arbitral
awards,
Considering that, in interpreting the Convention, regard is to be had to the
need to promote recognition and enforcement of arbitral awards,
1. Recommends that article II, paragraph 2, of the Convention on the
Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards, done in New York,
10 June 1958, be applied recognizing that the circumstances described therein are
not exhaustive;
2. Recommends also that article VII, paragraph 1, of the Convention on the
Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards, done in New York,
10 June 1958, should be applied to allow any interested party to avail itself of rights
it may have, under the law or treaties of the country where an arbitration agreement
is sought to be relied upon, to seek recognition of the validity of such an arbitration
agreement.
2Offi cial Records of the General Assembly, Fortieth Session, Supplement No. 17 (A/40/17), annex I,
and United Nations publication, Sales No. E.95.V.18.
3Ibid., Sixty-fi rst Session, Supplement No. 17 (A/61/17), annex I.
4Ibid., Fifty-fi rst Session, Supplement No. 17 (A/51/17), annex I, and United Nations publication,
Sales No. E.99.V.4, which contains also an additional article 5 bis, adopted in 1998, and the accompanying Guide to Enactment.
5Ibid., Fifty-sixth Session, Supplement No. 17 and corrigendum (A/56/17 and Corr.3), annex II,
and United Nations publication, Sales No. E.02.V.8, which contains also the accompanying Guide to
Enactment.
6General Assembly resolution 60/21, annex.

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